Fair Value - 768 Words

Case analysis: Classification of instruments in fair value hierarchy Instrumental 1 In the case, there was a significant decrease in the volume and activity for the instrument because of (1) significant widening of the bid-ask spreads in the markets and the widening continued throughout Q4 2012 (2) a significant decrease in the volume of trades comparing with historical level in Q4 (3) no recent transactions. According to 820-10-35-54-c, it was reasonable to determine that market is not active. Because the adjustments were based on management’s assumption, FFC didn’t used level 1 inputs in the income approach valuation technique (present value technique). In addition, significant adjustment inputs includes credit adjustment (level 3†¦show more content†¦Then, FFC changed its valuation technique from market approach to income approach (discounted cash flow model). Most relevant inputs in this model were level 3 inputs, because they were estimations and assumptions that were not market based. In other words, such inputs were not observable. So, FFC should classify the ARSs into level 3 of the fair value hierarchy in the fourth quarter. Instrument 4 There were no quoted prices available for X’ stock, so the measurement did not belong to level 1 of the Fair Value Hierarchy. In addition, because Most of X’s competitors are either privately held or subsidiaries of larger publicly traded clothing retailers and the shares of the two similar two companies are thinly traded in an observable market, the market is inactive. FFC also needed some significant assumptions to forecast its cash flows. These assumptions were level 3 inputs in accordance with ASC 820-10-55-e. In the case, FFC should use the multiple techniques and weight more market approach than income approach, because (1) general valuation principle is maximizing the use of relevant observable inputs and minimizing the use of unobservable inputs (2) sufficient data could be used to support both the approaches (3) market participants used multiple techniques to invest similar stock. So, under ASC 820-10-35-37A, FFC should category the investment into level 3 of t he fair value hierarchy, in which the lowest level significant inputs are.Show MoreRelatedIs Fair Value Accounting Really Fair?1021 Words   |  5 Pages For our project, we wanted to pick the topic, â€Å"Is fair value accounting really fair?† The first part of our presentation was simply explaining what fair value accounting is. This is the amount for which an asset could be exchanged, or a liability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm’s length transactions. According to the Financial Accounting Standards Board, the price that would be received to sell an asset or price to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction betweenRead MoreFair Value Measurement2356 Words   |  10 PagesFAIR VALUE MEASUREMENT: IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES AND CHALLENGES (PART 1) (by Tuam Kwok Choon and Ng Kean Kok) INTRODUCTION Since the promulgation of fair value accounting by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), the subject matter has been hotly debated by industry players and professionals of the accounting fraternity the world over. Many problems and pitfalls have been highlighted on the mark-to-market premise. For example, David Gwilliam and Richard H.G. Jackson (2008) noted thatRead MoreFair Value Accounting2122 Words   |  9 PagesMoving towards Fair Value Accounting In the past, historical cost measures were mainly used for reporting as they are reliable. However, historical cost is only relevant upon acquiring the asset and becomes irrelevant as time passes. On the other hand, fair value-based reporting, which accounts for changes in fair values, can produce balance sheet figures that provide a better reflection of the company’s value. This is also why accounting bodies are moving towards fair value accounting (FVA). OneRead MoreHistorical Cost and Fair Value1733 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract This paper is written for the accounting theory course as a course project. This paper discusses the differences between the historical cost accounting approach and the fair value accounting approach. The discussion will focus on the debate on using which accounting approach. We begin by stating the definitions of both concepts and discussing them thoroughly, then we state the main advantages of the two approaches followed by comparison between them. The last section of this paper discussesRead MoreFair Value Accounting And Audit2360 Words   |  10 Pages Fair Value Accounting and Audit Ivie Uduebho 4/30/2015 Introduction In today’s businesses, there has been an increase in the demand for financial reporting and also, the need to have reliable measurements of fair value and its disclosures. The need for reliable information has caused continuous change to accounting policies which has posed a challenge not only to management of companies, but also to auditors. The frequent changes in accounting principlesRead MoreEssay on Fair Value Case1940 Words   |  8 PagesCase 11-2(b) Fair Value Disclosures Case 11-2(b) is an extension of Case 11-2(a). For this case, assume that the Case 11-2(a) facts remain, with the exception of the additional assumptions listed below for each security. As stated in Case 11-2(a), Family Finance Co. (FFC) accounts for its investments at fair value, with changes in fair value reflected either in earnings (for trading securities) or other comprehensive income (OCI) (for available-for-sale (AFS) securities). 1 Because FFC usesRead MoreMeasuring Fair Value Accounting Standards1346 Words   |  6 PagesFair Value accounting is a measurement application to value assets and liabilities based on current transactions among buyers and sellers in the market. In other words, the price market participants pay or receive in an orderly transaction at a certain date. There are different techniques for measuring fair values depending on asset and market activity. It includes market approach, cost approach, and income approach. Financial Accounting standards (FAS 157) defines fair value as â€Å"the price that wouldRead MoreHistorical Development Of Fair Value Measurement1400 Words   |  6 PagesFair value measurement is one of the models which provide guidance on how entities should determine the fair value of financial instruments for reporting purposes. This paper discusses the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) Exposure Draft issued on December 3, 2015 which proposed amend ments to Fair Value Measurement (Topic 820): Disclosure Framework – Changes to the Disclosure Requirements. The paper analyzes some of the key points of the exposure draft, among other things, the history andRead MoreThe Impact Of Fair Value On Financial Reporting Essay1529 Words   |  7 Pagestoday’s time in the world of accounting is fair value. However, one common point of confusion is the scale of businesses affected by fair value, and when fair value came onto the scene. According to Robert Herz and Linda MacDonald â€Å"...the use of fair value in financial reporting is not new. In fact, it has been in place for decades, principally for financial assets. But even then, fair value is not required for all assets.† (2008) The idea of using fair value measurements goes back at least to the 1930’sRead MoreFair Value Accounting And Financial Reporting2166 Words   |  9 Pagesreporting and also, the need to have reliable measurements of fair value and its disclosures. The need for reliable information has caused continuous change to accounting policies which has posed a challenge not only to management of companies, but also to auditors. The frequent changes in accounting principles pose a challenge for managers in measuring accounting estimates accurately and are an exceedingly difficult task. Fair value accounting is a financial reporting approach in which companies

The Things They Carried By Tim O Brien - 1067 Words

Every one of us has experienced a strong emotional fear, and in that moment of stress, we learn more about who we are. The short story â€Å"The Things They Carried†, by Tim O’Brien, follows the lives of soldiers trying to survive the emotional and physical stresses of the Vietnam War. Throughout the story, O’Brien juxtaposes the physical weight of the supplies that the soldiers must carry with the immeasurable weight of their intense emotional experiences. The theme of â€Å"The Things They Carried† is the burden of fear, which O’Brien portrays through the counter-weight of objects the soldiers cling to for consolation and escape. Some men turn to objects that remind them of love, no matter how unlikely it is that they are loved back. Other men†¦show more content†¦Love is a powerful force, and Lieutenant Cross sometimes gets lost in his musings while thinking of Martha. O’Brien writes: â€Å"His mind wandered. He had difficulty ke eping his attention on the war. On occasion he would yell at his men to spread out the column, to keep their eyes open, but then he would slip away into daydreams, just pretending, walking barefoot along the Jersey shore, with Martha, carrying nothing.† Like any sane person in his situation, Lieutenant Cross wants to escape – to anywhere else but the war. The war brings terrible experiences – fear, death, hunger, and pain beyond imagination. The only way that Lieutenant Cross can endure these things is by escaping to an imaginary life with Martha. Although to her, he is little more than a friend, to Lieutenant Cross, Martha represents innocence, perfection, and a world free from war. While Lieutenant Jimmy Cross turns to love, other men turn to physical objects they carry for comfort. Henry Dobbins, an overweight man, finds comfort in food. Dobbins greatly enjoys eating food and uses food in the same manner that Lieutenant Cross uses love. No matter what happens each day during the war, as long as Dobbins can carry his pack and survive, at the end of the day he will be able to enjoy peaches in heavy syrup over pound cake. Dobbins also carries a heavy M-60 machine gun with extra ammo, for when the

Childhood Is the Happiest Time of a Persons Life free essay sample

Childhood is the happiest time of person’s life. As adult, we are usually happy on certain occasions such as when we get increase in salary or get present on our birthday. Anyway, do you still remember what time when we could be happy every day? Many people argue that childhood is time when we could be cheerful every day. Personally, I agree with the statement that childhood is the happiest time of persons life. There are some points to support my opinion. First of all, children dont have responsibility like adults do. As adult, we have many responsibilities. For example, as a husband and father, we have to provide basic needs for our family such as food, house, education and other needs. For this reason, we are required to work to collect money to meet these necessities. On the other hand, children are not necessary to think and to do this because parents will give all they need. We will write a custom essay sample on Childhood Is the Happiest Time of a Persons Life or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Another point is there are parents who always take care of children all the time. Parents always keep their eye on their children’s safety. Thats why children are not afraid to do anything and to try something new no matter it is dangerous. They dont care about anything they do because they dont know its consequences and they believe that their parents will always save them. For example, we sometimes see children feel happy play with fire even though it is dangerous. In contrast, adult will always consider any impacts if they want to do something because they have to take care themselves and to be responsible for their actions. Moreover, children expectations are simple and limited compare to adults’. To be happy, children only need friends, toys and place to play. It is different with adults who are always not satisfied with all they have had. They always expect more than all are already in their hands . For example, having a small house is still not enough so that they want a bigger one. Also, after they could buy a car, they also want to buy another car. In career, when they have got job, they want to have a higher position. They also want to be acknowledged by other people, or in other words they need â€Å"self-actualization†, the highest need as mentioned in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. So, adults always expect more and more every time. To sum up, nothing compare to childhood because children have no responsibility and they expect little compare to adults.

White Privilege And The Black Man Essay Example For Students

White Privilege And The Black Man Essay White privilege is not something that anyone asked for or that anyone tried to get. People hate white people because of â€Å"white privilege† which is not really important or even relevant anymore. I am white so some might say that I don’t think white privilege is a thing because I am spoiled and don’t care about anyone because I am white, but that is not true I live in an area where it is mostly black people and Mexicans and if I try to apply for a job and one of them apply for the same job they will get the job. If a black man and a white man both were try to be doctors for example and the black man had a doctoral degree and excelled at what he did and the white man had a doctoral degree and was lazy and wasn’t really good at what he did obviously the black man is going to get the job, not because what his skin color is but by what he has to offer. I cannot even count how many times I applied for a job and they made me check a box to tell them my race a nd every time white is the last thing you can pick and then I don’t even get the job because they need to be more culturally divers and want to hire someone that is not white. We will write a custom essay on White Privilege And The Black Man specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Last time I checked I was Italian, Irish, and polish there’s diversity for you because white is a color not a race, but im considered white and I don’t understand how anyone is white no one’s skin is white we do not walk around looking like a bunch of ghost. Black is also just a color not a race black people are brown and they all are something else whether they are African, Noriegan, etc.. In the arts of the contact zone by Mary Louis Pratt she talks about people from different races coming together to form one which a lot of work places and even schools want to enforce when they are limiting chances for. .ey are avoiding awkward situations and feeling uncomfortable. Everyone is raised a certain way so if you hate someone for being the way they are you should hate their grandparents because they raised their parents who raised them so think again before you hate someone because the way they see people. Racist is a word that is thrown out their all the time without any acknowledgement of what it means. Everyone thinks being racist means not talking to someone because they are not the same skin color. It really means when someone thinks they are better than someone else because they are a certain skin color. Peggy McIntosh said â€Å"I was taught to see racism only in individual acts of meanness, not in invisible systems conferring dominance on my group.† Which shows that people view it so many different ways in my opinion no one is racist everyone just has their own opinions.

Boys Dont Cry essays

Boys Dont Cry essays Starring Hilary Swank as Teena Brandon. In 1993, Brandon Teena, a teenage drifter who was famous locally for romancing the females in Falls City, Nebraska, was found shot dead in a farmhouse just out of the town. But Brandon, despite his reputation with females, wasn't actually a man at all. "He" was Teena Brandon, a young woman who was gender-confused. She had managed to pass as a man with all her peers, her girlfriends, and her killers who had once considered themselves her best friends. Boys Don't Cry is a film based on the true story above, which you will either love, or hate. If you are homophobic or don't know what it's like to be a minority in society, then you probably won't understand how Teena could be Brandon. But for those people who have faced similar dilemmas, such as being black in a white society, or being a homosexual living somewhere that you aren't accepted, you will fully understand what it is like to be Teena Brandon or even Brandon Teena. Teena Brandon (played by Hilary Swank) grew up in Lincoln, Nebraska. She lived with a friend who was a homosexual man. Even he didn't understand Teena's gender issues. Teena was known to the people in Lincoln as Brandon Teena. When this secret was discovered, she was chased from town. People thought she was dirty and didn't belong in their town. She ran away to a town called Falls City. Falls City was a town where unemployment, poverty, isolation, violence, and drug abuse were a normal part of every day life. Before she ran away, Teena took her role as Brandon even further. She cut her hair short, shoved a sock down her pants to make the right Teena was in trouble with the law in Lincoln before she ran to Falls City. She had stolen cars and failed to appear in court. These charges followed her. When she, ...

Stand and Deliver Essay Example

Stand and Deliver Essay Example Stand and Deliver Essay Stand and Deliver Essay The movie Stand and Deliver was inspired by a true story. The fact that It Is realistic, further Initiates the possibility of improving at something, which I think was the mall point of this movie. The movie started with the East of Los Angles Scene, things werent pretty. Crime and corruption was obviously rampant and emphasized. Children were not properly equipped with education, and were prone to live a life of obscenity if the areas education system was not improved. This particular person with the thick glasses; Jaime Escalate, wanted to make a change, he was completely determined to change the system and challenge the students to a higher level of achievement. And after trials and even a heart attack he had managed to succeed expectations. I think that this show was another testimony of the saying said by Napoleon Bonaparte The only limitations you have, are those you acknowledge. I think that If you balance motivation, determination, hard work and a little luck, you an achieve anything. Although the movie was a bit old, the Ideas never get old to me. Apart from the stories lesson, the click © part of the whole scene of what was happening came across to me as cheesy. The thick accents were also a hindrance to understand the movie; I Just wished It had subtitles. Also the filming was mediocre, low quality. The making of the movie was not that impressive but the story was. This in my opinion, are one of those movies you watch intentionally not for entertainment, UT for your own personal gain. The motivating factor and the cheesy stereotypic scenes depicted add to either its deterioration or common Interest amongst viewers. The ending was sort of expected, but I would be happy that it ended that way. Overall I think the movie was good in terms of substance. The movie is questionable though for people that seek more of an entertainment factor both from the quality of the movie and/ Its uniqueness among.

Choose a 1-2 paragraph passage from ancient Roman times and write a Essay

Choose a 1-2 paragraph passage from ancient Roman times and write a commentary on it - Essay Example This need to declare publically one’s belief during worship is emphasized in the bible, under the book of Romans 10: 9-10: I believe in God the Father Almighty, creator of heaven and earth. The first line of the creed offers a description of God as omnipotent and the maker of all that is in the heavens and the earth. This statement is meant to establish God as the creator and the only force behind creation and put an emphasis on his power. It also gives the origin of humanity and supports the Christian belief that God made man from his own image. This means that every human being was created in the likeness of God, and all persons are equal before the eyes of the Lord (Cooper 1). God is all-powerful and has the control of everything that exists in the universe. This is a quite contrast to some pagan beliefs, especially those found on most eastern religions, of two gods of equal strength. This first line exists to refute these claims and establish God as the only Supreme Being, whose power is unparalleled in the universe (Jones 6). And in Jesus Christ, His only son The second line defines Jesus Christ as the embodied son of God (Inyang 2). This is because many religions that were opposed to Christianity disputed the existence of Jesus Christ; leave alone the belief that he was the son of God. Other religions, such as Islam, consider Jesus to have existed as a mere minor prophet or a teacher. This statement therefore refutes this claim and places belief on Jesus Christ as the only son of God (McFall 1). Who was conceived by the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary? Jesus Christ, unlike any other human being, was born in a special manner. His birth into the humanly form was considered special because his mother, Mary, was a virgin at the time of his conception. The book of Matthew: 1: 23, in the New Testament, gives the prophecy of the birth of Christ. It states, â€Å"Behold, the virgin shall be with child and shall bear a Son, and they shall call His name Immanuel, which translated means, ‘God with us’† (New King James Version, Matthew: 1: 23). However, distinction exists between the Christian Catholics and the Protestants about the status of Mary. The Protestants view Mary as the human mother of God as opposed to the Catholics who view Mary as the mother of God (Jones 6). Suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, dead, and buried Although there were some historical debates as to the necessity of including the Pontius Pilate in the Apostle’s creed, it was quelled down by his historical significance he played in the crucifixion of Jesus Christ (Rufinus 38). The reference to the Pontius Pilate also places importance on the necessity of time line. This is because the reference places Jesus at a specific place in that period. It therefore authenticates the crucifixion of Jesus Christ (Jones 6). He descended into hell This statement is somehow controversial amongst many Christian scholars because it was not present in the roman manuscript and is missing in most protestant manuscripts (Jones 6). The word ‘hell’ in this phrase also does not refer to the hell that is highlighted in the book of revelations, but rather it refers to hades. This phrase refers to the victory of Jesus against death. It shows that Christians need not fear death as Jesus had already won the war for them (Calvin 5). The third day He rose again from the dead; He ascended into heaven, and sitteth on the right

Play And Childrens Development Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Play And Childrens Development - Research Paper Example In a study that measured the rate of video game playing by students compared to their academic performance, video gaming or passive gaming was found to have negative effects on the cognitive ability of students. The study reported decreasing interest in academic work due to its strong addictive nature that ties the students’ mind to such video gaming. According to this study, teachers and policy makers in education have constantly voiced their concerns regarding the detrimental effects of video passive gaming and TV watching. The study found that video gaming was negatively correlated to academic performance among college students, with the variation being much higher in male students compared to females. This may be explained by the time displacement hypothesis where media consumption takes away most of time that would be used in the intellectually challenging academic activities. Shelving such intellectual challenging activities thus leads to lower cognitive development amon g such constant passive game players, resulting to lowered cognitive development. Thus as Kantor (259) asserts, physical or active play would lead to improvement in cognitive development due to the mental activities and body systems involved, all which work to improve healthy development of an individual. Russel and Newton (295) relate passive gaming to the acute increase in obesity cases among teenagers today. According to this study, child obesity increases due to lack of enough time for physical activities, and increase in passive gaming and watching screen content.TV watching and passive gaming are rapidly displacing children physical activities with more teenagers showing increased preference to passive gaming over physical activities. The... The self-efficacy of children becomes critical in social development. Increasing children efficacy can be enhanced through increased self-confidence, which is attained when children learn to do things alone. Independence can be developed by ensuring children plan their own games and are supported and not guided in such unstructured games, which improve a child’s efficacy. Structured games will, therefore, reduce the learning process in a child compared to unstructured games, which reduces their self-efficacy, and limits their social development. Some of the plays that children can use freely to express themselves and enhance development are drawing, collages, using paper mache and block games where children arrange blocks to form different patterns. Playing is not only beneficial in developing physical health and abilities but has a great impact on social and psychological attributes in children. To ensure the benefits of physical play among children for both psychological and physical health, child play should not be directed. Allowing children to design their games and construct meanings from such games leads to creativity and self-drive, which is critical in ensuring cognitive development in children. Therefore, active play in children has to be encouraged and facilitated in any way possible to avoid health complications in obesity and other negative behaviors related to passive gaming. Such an approach in a child’s play promotes major psychological, social and physical benefits involved in physical gaming.

Student Assessment Essay Example for Free

Student Assessment Essay A current policy issue that is plaguing our educational system is the emphasis put on student assessments. Teachers are at odds in their classrooms on whether to teach the necessities that students will need to be productive in our society, to simply teach what will be tested on state and federally mandated assessments, or both. Teachers are forced to find a balance within their instructions due to the time restraints that stand in their way. When teachers are able to find this balance and present all the concepts that are included in assessment, plus all other concepts, the results from the assessments can be very beneficial to their classrooms. Assessment results have important implications for instruction. The primary aim of assessment is to foster learning of worthwhile academic content for all students (Wolf, Bixby, Glenn, Gardner, 1991). School communities use assessment results in a formative way to determine how well they are meeting instructional goals and how to alter curriculum and instruction so that goals can be better met. But if what schools assess and how schools assess do not match what is taught and how it is taught, then the results are meaningless, if not potentially harmful. Theres also potential for harm when decisions affecting students futures are being made based on results of assessments made with tools that are not appropriate for the purpose. Some schools are attempting to change assessment to match the content and format of instruction, and are therefore relying more upon alternative assessment. Alternative assessments include performance-based assessment, portfolios, student-designed assessments, etc. , and are considered by many educators to be more reflective of new curricular goals and methods of instruction. Some educators view alternative assessment as a better way to determine how well students are learning traditional forms of assessment like multiple choice tests. Alternative forms of assessment might best serve some of these purposes while more traditional forms could still serve others. Regardless of the purpose, however, the form of assessment used must reflect a teacher’s instructional goals and must be of high technical quality. (White Fredericksen, 1994) Alternative forms of assessment require knowledge and skills that most teachers have not had the opportunity to learn, which in fact poses another issue with these types of classroom assessments. Without the knowledge and skills, teachers will be doing their students a disservice by conducting faulty assessments. Providing teachers with the time that is essential for learning is necessary to making changes in assessment practices. Teachers need time to produce and implement the assessments. Teachers also need time to work with one another to share ideas and reach consensus because integrating instruction and assessment requires coordination. Alternative assessment will not be effective if it is added to the list of responsibilities for teachers. (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1991) When assessment results are used to make important decisions, there is a danger that instruction will narrowly focus on what is assessed while other important curricular goals and content are neglected (Romberg, Zarinnia, Williams, 1989). All assessments include only a sample of the total content contained within a curriculum. Critics of multiple-choice tests, for example, suggest that the skills usually assessed by multiple-choice testing become the focus of instruction at the expense of more substantial content. Alternative assessment presents a solution to this situation by ensuring that the content of the assessment matches the most important content in the curriculum. However, regardless of how much the content of an assessment is improved, when teachers narrowly focus on what is tested, the assessment results will only reveal the students learning of the test content, not whether they could perform a related task in a different environment. For example, if instruction is focused on a skill that is a test requirement, the results of the test will reflect only the students performance in a testing environment, not his/her general ability to perform that skill in everyday settings. This limitation is primarily a concern in large-scale districts or state testing situations where important decisions are based on a limited sample of student performances. The most important factors in determining the technical quality of assessments are the assessments’ reliability, validity, and fairness. If the quality of an assessment is not ensured, grouping practices, and coverage and pacing decisions may be based on invalid estimates of students capabilities. Sometimes grouping decisions can reflect or reinforce racial and socioeconomic inequities, or the decisions might be based on prior achievement that was artificially low due to past limited opportunities to learn. If all students have not had an equal opportunity to learn, then grouping and pacing decisions based on test results are unfair. (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1991) Good assessment requires minimizing factors that could lead to misinterpretation of results. The criteria for meeting this requirement are reliability, validity, and fairness. Reliability is defined as an indication of the consistency of scores across evaluators or over time. An assessment is considered reliable when the same results occur regardless of when the assessment occurs or who does the scoring. There should be compelling evidence to show that results are consistent across raters and across scoring occasions. (Elliott, 1994) Validity is defined as an indication of how well an assessment actually measures what it is supposed to measure. Three aspects of an assessment that must be evaluated for validity are tasks, extraneous interference, and consequences. Every assessment requires students to complete some task or activity. A valid task should reflect actual knowledge or performance, engage and motivate students to perform to the best of their ability, be consistent with current educational theory and practice, be reviewed by experts to judge content quality and authenticity. Extraneous interference occurs when there is something in the assessment that might get in the way of students being able to demonstrate what they know and can do. A valid assessment does not require knowledge or skills that are irrelevant to what is actually being assessed. Some examples of these might include students’ ability to read, write, role-play, or understand the context, personality, physical limitations, or knowledge of irrelevant background information. Valid assessments also minimize unintended negative consequences. Negative effects of assessments might include restricting curricula to what can be easily assessed, communicating unintended messages about power, control, or social status, and fostering narrow images of the nature of a particular discipline. (Elliott, 1994) Fairness means that an assessment should allow for students of both genders and all backgrounds to do equally well. All students should have equal opportunity to demonstrate the skills and knowledge being assessed. The fairness of the assessment is jeopardized if bias exists either in the task or in the rater. (Elliott, 1994) In this atmosphere of reform, student assessment is the centerpiece of many educational improvement efforts. Policymakers hope that changes in assessment will cause teachers and schools to do things differently. Assessment reform is viewed as a means of setting more appropriate targets for students, focusing staff development efforts for teachers, encouraging curriculum reform, and improving instruction and instructional materials. (Fuchs, 1994) Many educators and policymakers believe that what gets assessed is what gets taught and that the format of assessment influences the format of instruction. Contrary to our understanding of how students learn, many assessments test facts and skills in isolation, seldom requiring students to apply what they know and can do in real-life situations. Standardized tests do not match the emerging content standards, and over-reliance on this type of assessment often leads to instruction that stresses basic knowledge and skills. Rather than encouraging changes in instruction toward the engaged learning that will prepare students for the 21st century, these tests encourage instruction of less important skills and passive learning. (Fuchs, 1994) Since the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is the only national representative and continuing assessment of what Americas students know and can do in various subject areas, it seemed to be the most obvious choice for exploration. In exploration of this policy, research will be conducted to find out how affective it is within our country. The terms of this policy requires that assessments be conducted periodically in mathematics, reading, science, writing, the arts, civics, economics, geography, and U. S. history. Because of the issues of assessment, NAEP’s assessment will be probed to find if they are reliable, valid, and fair being that it serves as a type models for all other assessment practices. Under the current structure, the Commissioner of Education Statistics, who heads the National Center for Education Statistics in the U. S. Department of Education, is responsible by law for carrying out the NAEP project. The National Assessment Governing Board (NAGB), appointed by the Secretary of Education but independent of the Department, sets policy for NAEP and is responsible for developing the framework and test specifications that serve as the blueprint for the assessments. The National Assessment Governing Board develops the frameworks that provide the theoretical basis for the assessment and specific direction for what kinds of knowledge and skills should be assessed, how the exercises should be designed, and how student responses should be scored. These frameworks are the result of comprehensive efforts in which teachers, curriculum experts, policymakers, and members of the general public worked to create a unified vision of how a particular subject ought to be assessed. This vision is based on current educational research on achievement and its measurement, and good educational practices. (National Center for Education Statistics) References Berk, R. A. (1993). National Trends in Student and Teacher Assessment: Issues in Performance Assessment. Retrieved January 17, 2008 from http://nesonline. com/PDFs/1993_05Berk. pdf Elliott, S. N. (1994). Creating meaningful performance assessments: Fundamental concepts. Reston, VA: The Council for Exceptional Children. Fuchs, L. S. (1994). Connecting performance assessment to instruction. Reston, VA: The Council for Exceptional Children. National Center for Education Statistics. NEAP Overview. Retrieved on January 20, 2008 from http://www. nces. ed. gov/nationsreportcard/about/ North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, PBS Elementary/Secondary Service, in partnership with the National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (UCLA/CRESST) (1991). Schools That Work: The Research Advantage. Part IV: Alternatives for Measuring Performance. Oak Brook, IL: Authors. Romberg, T. , Zarinnia, A. Williams, S. (1989). The Influence of Mandated Testing on Mathematics Instruction: Grade Eight Teachers Perceptions. In Romberg, T. Wilson, L. (1992, September), Alignment of Tests with the Standards, Arithmetic Teacher, 40 (1), 18-22. White, B. Y. Fredericksen, J. R. (1994, Fall). Using Assessment to Foster a Classroom Research Community. Educator, 19-24. Wolf, D. , Bixby, J. , Glenn, J. , III, Gardner, H. (1991). To use their minds well: Investigating new forms of student assessment. Review of Research in Education, 17, 31-74.

Alzheimers Disease Essay -- Diseases Research Essays

Alzheimer's Disease The disease called Alzheimer’s is the fourth leading cause of death in the United States (Weiner, 1987). It is estimated that the elderly population will double between now and 2030. During this period, the number of elderly will grow by an average of 2.8% annually (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001). By 2050, the number of people with Alzheimer’s is estimated to range from 11.3 million to 16 million (Alzheimer’s Association, 2005). These startling numbers should prompt an examination into one of the leading causes of death among this group of people. Understanding what Alzheimer’s is and the known causes of the disease are a good starting point. For those who have aging family members, knowing the risk factors and warning signs of Alzheimer’s can be beneficial to both the patient and his family. Finally, once the patient has been diagnosed as having Alzheimer’s, a plan for treatment as well as providing the family and caregivers with a support syste m can help ease those involved through a very challenging, heartbreaking time. The Alzheimer’s Association (2005) defines the disease as â€Å"a progressive brain disorder that gradually destroys a person’s memory and ability to learn, reason, make judgments, communicate, and carry out daily activities†. Contrary to popular belief, Alzheimer’s is not the result of normal aging, although it normally occurs more frequently in people who are over the age of 65 (Gruetzner, 1988). Studies performed on the brains of deceased Alzheimer’s patients show several irregularities. The most obvious abnormality is in the signal-transmitting chemicals, where a 40-90% decrease in the enzyme CAT is found. This enzyme lies in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus regions of the brain. When CAT is decreased, it causes cholinergic or acetylcholine-releasing nerve terminals to diminish. These chemicals are important for communication between nerves. Also found during these autopsies were double strands of neurofibullary tangles, senile plaque (decaye d neural material), and granulovacular degeneration-all which are associated with mental impairment. Neurofibullary tangles normally do increase with age, but Alzheimer’s patients show a very high density of the tangles. The brain has also been found to contain abnormally high concentrations of aluminum (Weiner, 1987). While much is known about the end results of Alzheimer’... ...illick, 1998). While at the present time little is known about the causes of Alzheimer’s and there is no existence of a cure, current research combined with the latest in technology is hopeful for a breakthrough. Not only are new drugs being developed, but also the possibility of vaccines are on the horizon. Keeping up with the latest clinical trials, findings and treatment options can be a challenge, but doing so can arm patients and caregivers with a powerful tool. Only through education and progress in research can this deadly disease become extinct. Works Cited: Alzheimer’s Association. (2005). What is Alzheimer’s disease? Retrieved March 30, 2005, from http://www.alz.org/AboutAD/WhatIsAD.asp Gillick, Muriel R. (1998). Tangled minds: understanding Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias. New York: Penguin Group. Gruetzner, Howard. (1988). Alzheimer’s: a caregiver’s guide and source book. New York: Stephen Kipper. U.S. Census Bureau. (2001). Sixty-five plus in the United States. Retrieved March 30, 2005, from http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/statbriefs/agebrief.html Weiner, Michael A. (1987). Reducing the risk of Alzheimer’s. New York: Stein & Day.

The Management of US Homeland Security

The US employs a federal state of governance to manage and secure the totality of the individual states as mandated by the Constitution. The federal government’s headquarters is centered in the White House in Washington, D.C. The government is divided into three separate sectors, each with a well-defined role: (1) executive branch, defines the role of the president and his body and the limit to their powers; (2) legislative branch, is a bicameral form consisting of the House of Representatives/Congress and the House of the Senate and is generally concerned with passing of laws and amendments; (3) legislative branch, acts as the forecourt in judging state matters and decision-making on any matters, whether executive or legislative regarding US Constitution.The US Constitution dictum includes freer reign in each individual states meaning that in the federal government, the powers are limited because they are heavily limited and separated in each individual state. Each branch is separated into agencies and smaller branches with a definitive role.US being an industrial and a political giant would be an important target for those who aim to undermine its power. External conflicts, counterterrorism attacks, and mitigation of related disasters are major fora for homeland security. The Executive Office of the President houses 17 councils and since the power vested in the president, aside from being the â€Å"head of the state†, is the military chief –command, then it is concluded that the â€Å"decision-making† regarding national security befalls upon him.There are three offices of import to his role as the military chief-in-command: (1) Homeland Security Council (2) National Security Council and (3) Whitehouse Military Office. Understand that in the insidious role of protecting the homeland security, the council enacted for this task is the Homeland Security Council but this does not mean it is responsible for the safety alone since it harm oniously relates with the National Security Council and the Intelligence and the military to produce and ensure maximum homeland security.The HSC was established by the Homeland Security Act of 2002 under Executive Order 13228 last October 8, 2001 as a protective and legal response to the attack on the twin towers. The main quota of the act is to guarantee synchronization among executive departments and federal agencies regarding combating terrorism and ensuring homeland security.   Ã‚  Ã‚  It is spearheaded by the President with attendees like the Secretary of Defense, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, Director of National Intelligence, and other â€Å"heads† of agencies are invited to attend the meetings.Currently the homeland security and counterterrorism advisor is Miss Frances Townsend; she facilitates the HSC meetings and the thirty-five member-staff and accepts the and organizes the reports from staff pertaining to (1) peripheral security,   (2) biochemical defense,   (3) continuity of operations between agencies, (4) emergency preparedness (5) anticipation of ‘events’, and (6) nuclear defense. She works hand in hand with the Assistant for the National Security Affairs in combating terrorism.Naturally, homeland security would involve that of the United States Intelligence Community (production and dissemination of intelligence) and the Military of the US (civilian protection). The Intelligence is subdivided into three, namely, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), and National Security Agency (NSA); and the Military Unit, into four, Army, Marines, Navy, and Coast Guard. Their executive heads work hand in hand with HSC and the transfer of information and job relation of the various agencies all assist in the rendering of the task of bringing about homeland security.Bush’s National Strategy for Homeland Security, which was amended in Oc tober 2007, aims to target security at two levels: (1) terrorist and non-terrorist attacks which may have implications for the security and (2) offense and defense on the face of terrorism.   The conceptual framework on the Strategy is based on the following goals: (1) avert terrorist attacks; (2) protect state members, assets, properties, resources; (3) counteract incidents; and (4) strengthening the foundation to for long-term success.With so many levels or branches of government, would it still be possible for an effective management and delivery of homeland security system? Bush’s strategy and to achieve that of the fourth goal, proposed for a comprehensive Homeland Security Management System at the national, state and tribal level using the scheme guide-plan-assess-execute-evaluate. All complementary processes and practices must be implicated at all levels, employ multidisciplinary education opportunities, use s & t and governmental influences, and working hand-in hand with the Congress.There are problems regarding this area although this is highly resolvable by an ingenius shift of high-performance information technology between sectors. The e-government, as we may call it can facilitate, a more clear connection between the hundreds of agencies whose roles are rather overlapping and who must maintain thousands of information across the different bureaus. This may also facilitate not only more efficient communication between government agency channels but as well as mediated response between the members of the state and the government.The E-government strategy as an agenda for improving efficiency across homeland security channels may facilitate for a good protective homeland security measures in addition to the branching, structure of the Homeland Security.ReferencesForman, M.(2002). E-Government Strategy. Retrieved Dec 17, 2008 from http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/inforeg/egovstrategy.pdf.Homeland Security Council. (2007). Retrieved Dec 17, 2008 from http://www.whitehouse.gov/government/

Classification of Literature

CLASSIFICATIONs OF LITERATURE I. Divisions of Literature Literature Prose Poetry Fiction Nonfiction Dramatic Narrative Lyric Drama Short Story Novel Tale Fable Myth Legends Folktales Essay Biography Autobiography Diary History Chronicle News Anecdote Tragedy Comedy Opera Operetta Ballad Epic Metrical Tale Metrical Romance Ode Sonnet Song Elegy POINT OF COMPARISON| PROSE| POETRY| Form| Paragraph| Verse| Language| Words and rhythms of ordinary and everyday language| Metrical, rhythmical, figurative language| Appeal| Intellect| Emotions|Aim| Convince, Inform, Instruct| Stirs the readers imagination, present an ideal of how life should be and how life can be| A. Prose –is an ordinary form of written or spoken language without rhyme or meter, either fiction or nonfiction. Prose is writing that resembles everyday speech. The word prose is derived from the Latin word, â€Å"prosa† which literally means straightforward. Prose is adopted for the discussion of facts and topical r eading and does not adhere to any particular formal structures other than simple grammar. Fiction  Ã¢â‚¬â€œisthe form of any  narrative  or  informative  work that deals, in part or in whole, with information or events that are not factual, but rather, imaginary—that is, invented by the  author. 1. Drama –is the stage presentation of an action or story. It is a story in either verse or prose to be presented on stage. -a term generally applied to a type of literature that seeks to present actual life in brief intense form visibly in front of an audience. -a dialogue written for interpretation by several characters with directions from the author telling what the characters do and with directions giving the background or locale of the action.Playwrights–aredrama writers. Types of Drama: a. Comedy –is shown if man is victorious in the struggle of forces (not necessarily funny). b. Tragedy –is shown if man is overcome or defeated by the opp osing forces (does not necessarily end in violence and death). 2. Short Story–is a brief story usually with one character or two and a simple plot. It can be read in a short span of time. Edgar Allan Poe –is the Father of short story and popularized this literary genre. 3. Novel –is an invented prose narrative that is usually long and complex and deals especially with human experience through a connected sequence of events.One example of a novel is fantasy novel which is often set in worlds much different from our own and usually includes magic, sorcery, and mythical creature. 4. Tale –is an imaginative narrative of an event usually a story of fantasy like folktales, fairy tales and tall tale. -reflects man’s desire to know the unknown. -full of magic, enchantment and fantastic situations. Though unreal, it is full of sound and practical wisdom that is real and worthwhile. -helps man find solutions to his daily problems by mirroring in the worlds c reated by his mind. 5.Fable–is a story intended to teach a lesson or morals in which animals are presented as characters. 6. Myth –is an anonymous, traditional story that explains a belief, a custom, or a mysterious natural phenomenon. -comes from the Greek word muthos, which simply means â€Å"story†. -were created out of human need to make sense of the universe and explain how the world and its human inhabitants came to be. 7. Legends –is a story coming down from the past and narrates the origin of a place, thing or object. 8. Folktales –is a story that is created by the â€Å"folk†Ã¢â‚¬â€the common people—and passed along orally from generation to generation. include legends, fables, tall tales, fairy tales, fairy tales, and ghost stories. -are entertaining stories about ordinary people who survive by luck, by using their wits, and by relying on their own natural goodness. * Nonfiction –prose writing that narrates real even ts. 1. Essay –a short piece of nonfiction prose that examines a single subject from a limited point of view. -comes from a French word, â€Å"essai† which means â€Å"an attempt or trial†. -was made popular by a German writer, Michel Eyquiem de Montaigne in 1580. He published two volumes of his short compositions which he called â€Å"ESSAIS†. Francis Bacon, the reputed Father of English Essay, write formal essays which were cold and objective. Two Major Types: a) Formal Essay –are usually serious and impersonal in tone. -they are written to inform or persuade, they are expected to be factual, logical, and tightly organized. -put emphasis on purpose and subject. b) Informal Essay –also called as Personal Essay. -generally reveal much about the personalities, mood, habits, likes, dislikes and feelings of their authors. -tend to be conversational in tone and looks into personal experiences and observations. . Biography –is a story of a person’s life narrated or written by another person. 3. Autobiography –is a story of a person’s life narrated or written by himself. 4. Diary –is a daily record of transactions, observations, and events. -is a type of writing that records daily personal reflections, feelings and 5. History –is a chronological account or record of significant events affecting a nation or institution. 6. Chronicle –is a record of a series of events or mere listing of what happened. It does not evidence, comments or reactions. 7.News–is an information about recent and important events or developments either printed in newspapers or broadcast by the media. | 8. Anecdote –a brief and sometimes witty story that focuses on a single interesting incident or event, often in order to make a point or teach a moral lesson. Sometimes an anecdote reveals the character of a famous person. B. Poetry –comes from the Greek word â€Å"poiein†, which means â€Å"to make†. -a kind of rhythmic, compressed language that uses figures of speech and imagery designed to appeal to our emotions and imaginations. uses figurative language that quickens and stimulates the imagination; adds to the effectiveness of the language; gives clearness, force, beauty and memorableness to our ideas. Types of Poetry: 1) Dramatic poetry –deals with plays in verse and which are performed on stage. a) COMEDY –is a play that shows that the hero is victorious against natural or human forces; not necessarily funny. Example: Shakespeare’s Midsummer Night’s Dream b) TRAGEDY –an important series of events in the life of a protagonist of high birth or noble status.The casually related events culminate in a catastrophe in which the protagonist through his actions is brought low. Example: Sophocle’s Oedipus Rex, Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet c) OPERA–is a play usually set to music (sung) and with orch estral accompaniment; characterized by elaborate costuming, scenery and choreography. Example: Giuseppi Verde’s Aida d) OPERETTA –is a short amusing musical play. Example:Polished Pebbles 2) Lyric poetry–is subjectively and intensely emotional -characterized by its musical quality -comes from the word lyre, a harp-like stringed instrument. the love lyric poem plumbs comes from the depths of the human heart. -some early Greek lyricists are Archilochus, Callinus, Sappho and Pindar. Examples: The Eagle by Alfred Lord Tennyson, Love Poem by TitalLacambra-Ayala a) Ode –is elaborate lyric of majestic tone on a serious and dignified theme. It is usually written on a solemn or a highly momentous occasion and addressed in an exalted manner to some object or person. It echoes the emotions or feelings of the people. b) Song –is a short lyric poem intended to be sung. Songs may be sacred or secular, national or personal.Sacred songs –include hymns, anth ems and religious lyrics. Secular songs –may be of any themes, or emotions. c) Sonnet –is a lyric of 14 iambic-pentameter lines according to a definite pattern. Two distinctive forms of these type of poetry are: i. Italian or Petrarchan sonnet –was perfected by Petrarch in the 14th century. It consists of an octet and a sestet with a rhyme scheme abbaabba,cdcdcd or cdecde or cddeee. The octet, which may be descriptive or narrative, leads to reflection or resolution in the sestet. ii. Shakespearian sonnet–a poem of three quatrains and a couplet with the rhyme scheme ababcdcdefefgg.The quatrains are so related that they lead to a significant statement of thought or conclusion in the last two lines. The sonnet as a form of poetry made its first appearance in the 16th century with the sonnet of Spencer and Sir Philipp Sidney. Shakespeare wrote sonnets on the accepted themes on love and friendship. Of the sonneteers, Wordsworth has been considered the most pro lific. Most prominent of the 19th century sonnet writers was Elizabeth Barret Browningwhose â€Å"Sonnets From the Portuguese† had held great appeal especially to lovers all over the world. ) Elegy –is a poem of mournful tone on the theme of death characterized by a marked reflected element. 3) Narrative poetry Narrative poems describe or relate events. Lyric poems express the poet’s thoughts and feelings. Dramatic poems set forth life and character by means of speech and action. The following are examples of narrative poetry: a) Epic –is a long narrative poem that relates the great deeds of a larger-than-life hero who embodies the values of a particular society. Most epics include elements of myth, legend, folklore and history.Most epics heroes undertake quests to achieve something of tremendous value to themselves—like the Gilgamesh—or to their society—like the hero of Virgil’s Aenied. Among the world’s greatest epics are the Greek â€Å"Iliad† and â€Å"Odyssey† attributed to Homer and the Anglo-Saxon â€Å"Beowulf†. These epics are called authentical epics having sprung as they were from the people and having no known author. b) Ballad –a song or songlike poem that tells a story. Most ballads have a regular pattern of rhythm and rhyme and use simple language and refrains as well as other kinds of repetition.Ballads usually tell sensational stories of tragedy, adventure, betrayal, revenge, and jealousy. c) Metrical tale –is a short narrative verse intended to be read in one setting. Its subject matter is drawn from life and may deal with any subject matter and any class of people. Chaucer’s â€Å"Canterbury Tales† falls under this category. d) Metrical Romance –is a long, rambling love story in verse which appeals to the sense of the marvelous. It is largely concerned with the adventures and exploits of brave knights, romantic love, deeds o f chivalry and religious pursuits.The characters and events are far removed from reality, often passing into the realm of the purely fantastic. The Arthurian tales are the best known of the metrical romance of the middle ages. FIGURES OF SPEECH Figure of speech  Ã¢â‚¬â€œisthe use of a  word  or  words  diverging from its usual meaning. It can also be a special repetition, arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning, or a  phrase  with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it. Figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity.However, clarity may also suffer from their use, as any figure of speech introduces an ambiguity between literal and figurative interpretation. A figure of speech is sometimes called a  rhetorical figure, figurative language  or a locution. Figures of speech provoke a thought process and bring depth to the language. To be able to use them well is an art, which can be mastere d over time. The more you read, the more you will be able to understand. With the help of the following figures of speech examples, you too can master the art of using them appropriately.The following figures of speech are commonly used: 1. Simile –a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two seemingly unlike things by using a connective word such as like, as, than or resembles. Examples:a full moon like an accusing face skinas white as snowflakes an actor’s hand opening more gracefully than a blossom cloudsresembling stuffed animals 2. Metaphor –a figure of speech that makes a comparison between two seemingly unlike things without using any connective words. Direct metaphor –states that one thing is another. The starts are icy diamonds† -Hewas a lion in the battlefield. Implied –like â€Å"against her black formal gown, she wore a constellation of diamonds† which implies a comparison between diamonds and stars and between th e black gown and a night sky. 3. Metonymy –is the use of an attribute of an object or of something closely associated it to represent that object. Examples:The counsel to the defendant addressed the bench. The pen is mightier that the sword. 4. Synecdoche –is a figure of speech that substitutes a significant part of something for the thing itself.Examples:50 heads of cattle (â€Å"head† is used to mean whole animal) The president's administration contained the best brains in the country (â€Å"brains† is used for intellectually brilliant persons) 5. Personification –a kind of metaphor in which a nonhuman thing or quality is talked about as if it were human. In poetry, personification invites the reader to view the world as if natural and inanimate objects possess the same feelings, qualities and souls that people do. Examples:hands of a clock, an angry sky, a tree that looks at God all day 6.Hyperbole –a figure of speech that uses exaggerati on to express a strong sentiment or create a comic effect aimed at either. -also called as overstatement or exaggeration. -often used to capture a sense of intensity or to emphasize the essential nature of something. Example: sweating to death in a stuffy room (hyperbole is used to express extreme discomfort) 7. Paradox –an apparently self-contradictory but is actually true or statement or sentiment that appears contradictory to common sense yet is true in fact. Example: she killed him with kindness, a well-known secret agent, 8.Oxymoron–combination of two seemingly contradictory or incongruous words. Examples: wise fool, deafening silence, cruel love, a stripper's dressing room 9. Irony –a contrast or discrepancy between expectations and reality—between what is said and what is really meant, between what is expected and what really happens, between what appears to be true and what is really true. Irony in literature falls into three major categories: a. Verbal Irony–occurs when a writer or speaker says one thing but really means the opposite.Example: When you tell a friend who shows up an hour late for an appointment, â€Å"I just love being kept waiting in the rain†. b. Situational Irony –occurs when what actually happens is the opposite of what is expected or appropriate. Example: In Greek mythology, when Zeus falls in love with a mortal woman named Semele. Zeus promised to give her anything she wants. To his dismay, she wants to see him in his true form as the Lord of Heaven. Zeus reluctantly agrees, and he burns her to death. c. Dramatic Irony –occurs when the audience or reader knows something important that a character in the story or play doesn’t know.It can heighten a comic effect or generate suspense. Example: In Oedipus Rex, when the Corinthian messenger tells Oedipus that the king of Corinth has died of natural causes, Oedipus believes he has been released from the prophecy that he will murder his father. The audience, however, knows that the truth has yet to come to light. 10. Alliteration –refers to the repetition of any particular sound among words placed close together, in a sentence or line. These are mainly consonant sounds, but can be vowel sounds too. Example:Don't delay dawn’s disarming display. Dusk demands daylight. Sara’s seven sisters slept soundly in sand. 1. Apostrophe–a figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses an absent or dead person, a deity, and abstract quality, or something nonhuman as if it were present and capable of responding. In literary pieces, this figure of speech usually starts with an exclamation ‘O'. Examples of apostrophe are: Examples:O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo? –  Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth, That I am meek and gentle with these butchers! Thou art the ruins of the noblest man That ever lived in the tide of t imes. –  Julius Caesar, William Shakespeare. 2. Onomatopoeia–thisfigure of speech imitates the sounds produced by the objects or actions. Examples:The  buzzing  of bees. The  whirring  of the washing machine. Clap, squish, snort, and whine VERSIFICATION Versification –is the art of making verse. It is based on the principles of prosody (theory of which versification is the practice. Verse –is the language in which the recurrent elements of rhythm exhibit patterns that can be identified and measured. Basis of Verse in English: 1. Accent or Stress –in all words of more than one syllable, one syllable is pronounced with stress more than the others.This emphasis is a combination of pitch, duration, loudness and timbre (accent or stress). Two kinds of syllables: stressed and unstressed 2. Foot –a metrical  unit composed of stressed and unstressed syllables. Four kinds of feet: a. Iamb or Iambic –refers to one unstressed syllabl e followed by one stressed syllable. Example: aBOVE ^| / ^| /| ^| / ^| /| ^ / ^| /| ^| /| The| falling| out| of| faithful| friends,| renewing| is| of| love|   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | b. Trochee or Trochaic –refers to one stressed syllable followed one unstressed syllable. Example: Apple / ^| / ^| /| ^| / ^|Double,| double| toil| and| trouble| c. Anapest or Anapestic –refers to two unstressed syllable followed by one stressed syllable. Example: unconcerned ^| ^| / ^| ^| /| ^| ^ /| I| am| monarch| of| all| I| survey| d. Dactyl or Dactylic –refers to one stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables. This is the reverse of anapestic. Example: TENderly /| ^| ^| / ^^| Take| her| up| tenderly| 3. Meter –refers to a measure or patterned count of a poetic line. -the number of feet in a line. The number of metrical feet in a line is described as follows: * Monometer— one foot * Dimeter— two feet Trimeterâ₠¬â€ three feet * Tetrameter — four feet * Pentameter — five feet * Hexameter — six feet * Heptameter — seven feet * Octameter— eight feet 4. Stanza –group of lines of fixed number, meter and rhyme pattern, repeated throughout the poem. Some of themore usual stanza forms are: a. Couplet –two lines, usually rhyming b. Triplet –a unit of three lines of verse c. Quatrain –a unit of four lines of verse d. Quintet –a unit of five lines of verse e. Sextet or sestet –a unit of six lines of verse f. Rhyme royale or Chaucerian stanza –consists of seven iambic pentameter lines with the rhyme abc bb cc. . Spencerian stanza –consists of eight iambic pentameter and an Alexandrine (an iambic hexameter line). h. Blank verse –iambic pentameter lines without rhymes. i. Free verse –is a verse free of the essentials of rhyme and meter. Rhythm:  the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line. Scansion:  describing the rhythms of poetry by dividing the lines into feet, marking the locations of stressed and unstressed syllables, and counting the syllables. Thus, when we describe the rhythm of a poem, we â€Å"scan† the poem and mark the stresses (/) and absences of stress (^) and count the number of feet.The scansion of this quatrain from Shakespeare’s Sonnet 73 shows the following accents and divisions into feet (note the following words were split: behold, yellow, upon, against, ruin'd): ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /|   |   |   |   |   | That| time || of| year || thou| mayst || in| me || be| hold || | | | | | ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /|   |   |   |   |   | When| yel || low| leaves, || or| none, || or| few, || do| hang ||   | | | | | ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /|   |   |   |   |   | Up| on || those| boughs || which| shake || a| gainst || the| cold,| ||   |   |   |   |   | ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /| ^| /|    |   |   |   |   | | Bare| ru || in'd| choirs || where| late || the| sweet| birds| sang ||   |   |   |   |   |   | From this, we see the rhythm of this quatrain is made up of one unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable, called an iambic foot. We also see there are five feet per line, making the meter of the line pentameter. So, the rhythm and meter is iambic pentameter. 5. Sound –refers to the sensation preserved by the sense of hearing.In poetry, there are three forms of sound as follows: Rhyme –this is the matching of final vowel or consonant sounds in two or more words. There are four types of rhyme: a. End Rhyme –when the corresponding sounds happen at the ends of line. b. Internal Rhyme –when the corresponding sounds happen within lines. c. Exact or perfect rhyme –the rhyming words share corresponding sounds, stresses and similar number of syllables. d. Imperfect or slant rhyme –the rhyming words do not e xactly share corresponding sounds. 6. Imagery –refers to the specific details that stimulate senses or the concrete representation of a sense impression, feeling or idea. Images can either be one of the following: a. Visual Image –it is something seen b.Aural Image –it is something heard c. Tactile Image –it is something felt d. Olfactory Image –it is something smelled e. Gustatory Image –it is something tasted f. Metaphorical or Symbolic Image –this suggests an idea or feeling beyond what a given image literally image describes. 7. Diction –means choice of words in reference to their effectiveness, clearness or correctness. However, it is also important to know what these words imply or indicate. There are two types of getting meanings, that is, either denotation or connotation. Denotation is also known as the dictionary meaning while connotation refers to a meaning apart from the thing explicitly suggests or describes.

Doctor Faustus And The Lutheran Aesthetic Tragedy Theology Religion Essay Essays

Doctor Faustus And The Lutheran Aesthetic Tragedy Theology Religion Essay Essays Doctor Faustus And The Lutheran Aesthetic Tragedy Theology Religion Essay Paper Doctor Faustus And The Lutheran Aesthetic Tragedy Theology Religion Essay Paper a reminder of mediaeval pageants inheriting moral every bit good as physical constructions, with the Heaven high up and the Hell underneath in the cavity or the caldron. ( 234 ) On such occasions as those of Barabas the caldron could stand for the traditional image of snake pit which was derived from the concluding chapters of Job where Behemoth and Leviathan both were pictured in inside informations as hell-mouth of fearful monsters. , a boiling caldron was imagined in the unfastened jaws of the monster. ( 235 ) Sometimes the caldron represents hell itself, and sometimes it is a portion of the scene. Decidedly in Barabas terminal there are inevitable moral concerns with the concluding triumph of Christians in Malta. Yet, Marlowe avoids the indirect Second Coming of Christ and the endurance of the Christians has no moral justification. In fact Marlowe has damned the Jew as a agency of torturing and exposing those who pride themselves on their Christian religion. The statements of the Governor are like those of Peter the Venerable pressing the Jews to be forced to lend to the cost of the Second Crusade. ( 236 ) At the clip all wars against the Turkish heathens were seen as Crusades and the state of affairs of Malta was the extension of the 1 that Peter Venerable was composing approximately. Marlowe implies that Barabas is against the Christ, yet his test is conducted by figures that approximate to Pilate and Chief Priest ( 331 ) . Profession in the drama means spiritual religion. ( 237 ) Barabas makes the Christian point that righteousness is non a tribal or racial ownership, but an single compact ( 346-350 ) . Therefore he has the right to populate and thrive in this universe and in footings of the Old Testament he seems to be justified. His extension of legal position in Malta to a sacredly legality under the footings of the Judaic jurisprudence, yet, does non suit in, with his claim to a personal compact. ( 238 ) The righteousness in Barabas address is a distinguishable and antithetical construct to that of the New Testament and a Christian audience is expected to reject Barabas defense mechanism. In ( 351-355 ) profession means Judaic religion and for the Jew to claim single compact is a contradiction in footings. Barabas as the figure of Job efforts at ineffectual excuse and as an Anti-Job figure resorts to Machiavellian craft ( 507 ) . The last two line of the Governor ( 356 ) show that more than doctrinal rightness is involved. ( 239 ) Marlowe in stating all they that love non Tobacco and Boie were fooles ? And to what? Such a statement is effectual because of its power to upset our prepossession, but it does non take to anyplace. Marlowe identified himself with the Rebels: Tamburlaine, Barabas, Faustus, and Edward II, but that such designation blinded him to the changeless Torahs of God, society is unlikely. His Cambridge background and societal contacts suggest his contact with Calvinism and the strongest emotional effects in the Hagiographas of the reformists normally come from their sense of God s infinite transcendency, and adult male s infinite adulteration ( Tamburlaine, 2893-2911 ) . The talker is passionately involvement with the thought of God s pureness and transcendency and the treachery of that pureness in human nature. ( 240 ) He knew what it was like to idolize transcendency, the power, and beauty beyond human comprehension. He was a God-haunted atheist being at the same time fascinated and horrified by the autonomy of the fallen universe. We come to prefer the Judaic profession of Barabas to the lip service of the Christians with Marlowe belaboring the Christians. The universe of Marlowe is wholly a fallen one and so is the universe of Calvin. The Spirit and the Letter: Marlowe s Tamburlaine and Elizabethan Religious Radicalism ( 125 ) Having conquered Babylon and outside the ruins of the metropolis Tamburlaine asks about the Islamic sanctum books: Now Casane They shal be burnt ( 2 Tam. 5.1.173-76 ) . He realized the futility of esteeming anything but his ain deity. He taunts Mahomet in ( 2 Tam. 5.1.180-81 ) and identifies himself as the flagellum of another higher God. ( 126 ) To him Spirit is bound by nil unlike Mahomet whose amount of faith remainders in the Koran ( 2 Tam. 5.1.191 ) . He disdains faith codified in books and the missive of the jurisprudence means nil for he possesses a Godhead spirit throwing off his shepherd s weeds to uncover the armour beneath carrying everyone he is non of flesh and blood topic to Torahs. Marlowe remarks on issues of gnosis and interior enlightenment and the struggle between the spirit and the missive. Here the Koran is substituted for the Christian Scriptures and he is turn toing Christian divinity in reassigning the noncompliant gesture to the distant universe of Islam. In Tamburlaine the ownership of a religious gnosis leads to a neglect for all Torahs where others are governed bodily by it. At the clip the issues of election and predestination were heatedly debated and there were an increasing figure of people seeking direct contact with God from spiritual governments or doctrinal codifications. Marlowe s dramas are a portion of a larger cultural geographic expedition of the significance of single spiritual inspiration and the effects of such inspiration for the organic structure politic. ( 127 ) Marlowe s dramas indicate a doubting attitude towards Gnostic transcendency. He offers a critical portrayal of religious assurance gone huffy and facilitates us with the perceptual experience of tensenesss in English Reformation thought. II. There is a Gnostic subtext in Marlowe s dramas every bit good as the presentation of anti-materialism. ( 128 ) As the oppositions of the Gnostics, the early Church Fathers intended their work as a cautious displaying of unorthodoxy concentrating their attending excessive, bizarre belief and patterns. Gnosticism is a negative religio-philosophical motion get awaying from the tragic travesty of stuff being, abhoring the organic structure and material registry as a cardinal characteristic like many ancient doctrines. But in Neoplatonic circles, the theory of godly emanations proclaimed earthly things to bear the contemplation of the Godhead. In Gnostic thought the material universe is non even the creative activity of the true God ; instead it s the work of an inferior God, himself the consequence of an mistake in the Godhead kingdom. ( 129 ) The one, unknowable God causes distinguishable godly existences to look, each stand foring one of his property. The stuffs of creative activity root from a tragic sense of loss, forsaking, and perplexity. For the Gnostics the creative activity of the universe is a calamity. Nothing valuable inheres in the qualities and characters of materiality. To be on Earth signifies the deepness of one s remotion from the flawlessness and tranquility of the Godhead. The Gnostics can get the better of the overpowering disaffection of life on Earth through the attainment of gnosis, the acknowledgment of one s true origin the kernel of gnosis is cognizing that the 1 s true ego is godly and organic structure and the universe are hindrances to one s nonnatural acclivity. ( 130 ) Gnostic minds believe that merely a few persons possess the pieces of deity. Peoples are divided into three classs: pneumatics ( spirituals ) , psychics, and hylics, one s position being predestined. The spirituals are by all agencies saved ; the psychics are destined to a in-between position ; the hylics are entirely material characters unimpeachably damned. Gnostic groups deny their bodily appetencies. Other Gnostic religious orders believed that one time the person has achieved enlightenment, they were free to prosecute in any kind of behavior. Activities in the organic structure have no consequence on redemption. Gnostic doctrine tended to further an implicit in force that Marlowe acknowledges in the portrayal of Tamburlaine. ( 131 ) Tamerlane s aspirations stem from a Gnostic battle between spirit and the dampening bonds of affair incarcerating it. He does nt believe that he is one of this universe life, loving, and basking it. The universe for him is to be conquered and subdued. There is an ontological spread between his innate Godhead illustriousness and the sordidness of his milieus. When Zenocrete addresses him as a shepherd he is indignant. As the terrour to the universe ( 1 Tam. 1.2.34-35,38 ) he throws off his simple shepherd s attire to uncover armour underneath Lie here ye weedes that I disdaine to weare. / This compleat armour and this curtle-axe / Are adjuncts more beseeming Tamerlane ( 1 Tam. 1.2.41-43 ) . He dissociates himself from his pastoral individuality which is connected to earth, birthrate, and animate beings, and declares himself to transcendence in character. His armor is the symbol of his distance from the bodily universe raising between visual aspect and world. Although he and his work forces seem like cockamamie state boyfriends, they bear Empires on [ their ] speares ( 1 Tam. 1.2.47, 65 ) . Tamburlaine claims near relationships to Gods stating Jove shield me safe from harme ( 1 Tam. 1.2.180-81 ) . Nothing can destruct him for The chiefest Supreme being / Will sooner burne the glorious frame of Heaven / Then it should so cabal my overthrow ( one Tam. 4.2.8, io-11 ) . ( 132 ) Tamerlane is the carrier of Gnostic individuality perforating others organic structures with his blade, the cogent evidence of his built-in deity. To distance himself from materiality he wounds himself demoing he is non of organic structure A lesion is nil, be it nere so deepe as the insignificance of the affair ( 2 Tam. 3.3.115 ) . in such antinomianism any kind of behavior is allowed ; he can handle others organic structures every bit good as that of Earth s as he pleases: colza, slaying, and the combustion of towns. Others are provincials, slaves as defined by their organic structures deserving devastation to Tamburlaine. They have no opportunity for transcendency. That A lesion is nil justifies a violent riddance of materiality and materiality. ( 133 ) He fantasizes about release from the compressing ironss of his organic structure into pure spirit. Empire means small to him and he is excessively good for Earth so he makes a Gnostic flight from it as he contemplates his return to Samarcanda, his place of birth. He rides through the streets in aureate armors like the Sun. Tamburlaine s existent involvement lies in returning to the religious Samarcanda ( 2 Tam. 4.3.130- 32 ) . The word dissevered suggests violent separation from the hateful organic structure. He looks past to the ultimate end of transcendency ( 1 Tam. 1.2.236-37 ) . He maintains the perfect and exclusive felicitie of life is an earthly Crown ( 1 Tam. 2.7.28029 ) . Crowns assume a talismanic significance ; Tamburlaine steals them, plays with them, rhapsodizes over them, and will them. They symbolize the thrust for his earthly omnipotence. His sorrow is non holding adequate clip to unite the universe. ( 134 ) Tamerlane has Machiavellian political purposes. Like Barabas he detaches himself from the universe around him. In his Gnostic belief, there is a powerful tool in accomplishing ultimate temporal domination. His Gnostic disgusts the affair and refuses to digest any resistance. Zenocrate is closely connected to the Earth ; she sees persons who live, drama, love, marry, and raise kids. On the other manus for Tamerlane it is indecent to harbor ideas effeminate, and swoon ( 1 Tam. 5.1.174, 177 ) . His boy Calyphas is representative of the boisterous material kingdom. He suffers the destiny of hylic persons. He is simply a ball of clay, created of the mussy dregges of Earth, / The trash and potassium bitartrate of the Element/ wherein was neithercourage, strength or wit/ but follie, sloth and damned idling ( 2 Tam. 4.1.125-28 ) . Calyphas is merely fit for extinction. Tamburlaine justifies his act through a typically Gnostic rhetoric of stuff contempt. ( 135 ) In Tamburlaine, the phase is littered with lacerate cadavers left to decompose in bare landscapes. His belief in the ontological insignificance and immorality of affair attempts the devastation of the universe being disenchanted with it. No subject is great plenty in repressing the boisterous qualities of the stuff registry and Tamburlaine wants nil less than its entire devastation. Burning Larissa, destructing Babylon and submerging its full population, endangering to fire so much of Earth that will do the starres to run ( 2 Tam. 4.1.197 ) propose his tormented effort to convey affair to an terminal. He compares his activities to wars of Gods like the mention to Phaethon, Apollo s boy misleading the chariot of the Sun destructing a good part of the Earth. He speaks approvingly about the devastation of Damascus. ( 136 ) Tamerlane s Gnostic assault is on affair and his position like that of the Quakers comes to the decision that the age of books, Torahs, ceremonials, and formal faiths is over when there is the voice within which comes to him shortly before the decease of Zenocrate in a holy enchantment ( 2 Tam. 2.4.34 ) . His devotedness to the spirit leads to intolerant contempt for the missive. III. The 16th century was the clip of acquaintance with Gnostic thoughts and texts. ( 137 ) Hermetic texts show both optimistic and pessimistic gnosis, hermetic penetrations about the interplay between spirit and affair as the footing for scientific probes that would take to the betterment of human life and Gnostic hatred of the affair. The Reformation brought Gnostic thoughts into the head of spiritual contention. Discussions on the Letter and the Spirit, Law and Grace, and Eucharist were all responsible for the Gnostic ambiance. Luther s denouncement of plants righteousness and Calvin arose from new readings of St. Paul and the Gospel of St. John. ( 138 ) The Gnostic nature of Reformed divinity was noticed by Erasmus who accused Luther of adopting a thinly cloaked gnosis available merely to a few. Marlowe as a pupil of divinity in Cambridge was doubtless familiar with the Hermetic literature and its compulsion with religion, works, the nature of the sacraments, and Puritan divinity in England. William Perkins, the greatest sermonizer of the twenty-four hours and the inspiration for Puritan oratory boulder clay after the Restoration was being heard at the clip. ( 139 ) In taking the narrative of Faustus he sets the ancient fable of the Gnostic Simon Magus and his chase of Helen of Troy ( Sophia ) . In England, the Family of Love, preached the primacy of the interior visible radiation. ( 140 ) Marlowe could barely hold failed to cognize the Family of Love. ( 143 ) IV. The authorities of the clip viewed English society susceptible to Gnostic solutions to spiritual inquiries. Marlowe s dramas are portion of this overall late sixteenth treatment, concerned with challenges to governments who deny that persons have a right to talk with assurance as the carriers of ultimate spiritual penetration. Tamburlaine provides two thoughts for godly flawlessness of the person and antinomianism, single being of the same being as God connoting the originality of the psyche ( 144 ) The single must merely atone and acknowledge his true deity. No Christian expiation for wickedness is necessary. Christ did non expiate for human wickedness ; he merely provided a theoretical account of behavior for the enlightened in his triumph over wickedness, the organic structure, and decease. Familists believed Christ is no 1 adult male, but an estate and status in adult male everyman being his ain Jesus and a Jesus for himself possessed with absolute holinesse and purenesse. ( 145 ) It is merely a short measure from a belief in human flawlessness to antinomianism. Like Tamburlaine, the Familists believed the organic structure was mere dead affair, no more than an semblance without existent effects for their redemption that explains their penchant for spirit over the missive ; whatever lies in books is of no usage. ( 146 ) Baptism and Eucharist are useless symbols including Catholicism. The Bible is valuable merely as an allegorical text offering types of metempsychosis to be imitated by the initiated. ( 147 ) Major scriptural narratives and figures elucidate the cardinal struggle between those enlightened by God and those non. Gnostic doctrines show deeply-seated, violent aversion to the universe. All people, Turkes, Mahometans, and Jews were eligible for religious metempsychosis, and all people were to be loved. Marlowe would hold appreciated such cosmopolitan Concord in the anti-dogmatic doctrines of his twenty-four hours as an appealing option for an single marginalized as an foreigner, an atheist, and a sodomist. ( 148 ) However, Marlowe demonstrates that any signifier of Gnostic transcendency potentially leads to violent for those earthly. In Tamburlaine scaring effects of extremist spiritual philosophies overcome the complications of life in a religious flight from a toxicant universe. In associating Marlowe with the Orthodox oppositions of this unorthodoxy, the author goes against the critical consensus on Marlowe s ideological orientation. Most critics considered Marlowe sympathetic to his characters desire for the space. Bartels in depicting Marlowe as outrageously other, perpetuates the designation of the playwright and his supporters. Marlowe nevertheless, was non an antinomian or an supporter of Gnostic aspirations. ( 149 ) Taking Tamburlaine as ideal would be a misreading of the drama. Marlowe does put a persuasive version of gnosis but it is a pessimistic call for the devastation of the universe and its dwellers, anything that is not-Tamburlaine. Marlowe shuns the organic structure as an semblance. His primary beginnings for the life of the Scythian vanquisher the historical Tamburlaine is eulogized as a theoretical account Renaissance prince who dies a natural decease with his imperium intact. Tamburlaine s conquering of the universe is neer criticized. Yet, he expands the function of the Damascene Virgins, Zenocrate, and Calyphas. These characters question Tamburlaine s mission and articulate Marlowe s concern for the organic structure and the universe at the custodies of spiritual fiends like Tamburlaine with whom we sympathize. Marlowe alters the narrative ends. In the beginnings, Tamburlaine dies of old age after a successful calling as a vanquisher and male monarch. Alternatively, he c hooses to demo Tamburlaine yielding to a slackly defined distemper or illness. Tamerlane maintains throughout the drama that his true being has nil to make with his stuff being, hence his aghast inquiry Shall illness prove me now to be a man/ That have been termed the panic of the universe? ( 2 Tam. 5.3.44-45 ) . ( 150 ) Tamerlane s distemper and decease exposes the vacuum of the Gnostic hope for flawlessness proclaimed by the vanquisher during his life. Religious contentions of his age are rooted in the anxiousnesss about the relationship between spirit and affair reminiscent of ancient Gnosticism. ( 151 ) The interior visible radiation was a job for Marlowe ; the beauty and passion of Tamburlaine s addresss in portion 1 are appealing responses to populating with the restrictions of mortality. The inner visible radiation besides disturbs Marlowe. The writer s uncertainties are evident on Tamburlaine s deathbed, when the Physician tells the vanquisher that his blood is dried and his Artiers, which alongst the venas convey / the lively liquors which the bosom engenders / Are parch d and nothingness of spirit ( 2 Tam. 5.3.85, 93-95 ) . Spectacless of Unfamiliarity: Imperialism, Alienation, and Marlowe Writer: Bartels, Emily Carroll. Publication: Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993. Merchandise Idaho: 17153 eBook ISBN: 9780585126449 ISBN: 9780812231939 Subject: Marlowe, Christopher, 1564-1593 Criticism and reading. Political dramas, English History and unfavorable judgment. Alienation ( Social psychological science ) in literature. Net-Library ( Thirteen ) Why did Marlowe take to convey foreigners on the phase? Oriental savages, black prestidigitators, homophiles, African Queenss and male monarchs, Machiavellian Christians, Turks, and Jew? Why was the foreigner such an appealing topic? Why were other non-European, universes like Persia, Egypt, Africa, and the East chosen as the scene? Besides the timeless captivation with the foreigner, there was besides the outgrowth of imperialist thoughts. ( fourteen )

ACT Trigonometry The Complete Guide

ACT Trigonometry The Complete Guide SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Trigonometry is the branch of math that deals with right triangles and the relationships between their sides and angles. (The word "trig" is related to the word "triangle," to help you remember.) There will generally be around 4-6 questions questions on the ACT that deal with trigonometry (the official ACT guidelines say that trigonometry problems make up 7% of the test). They may seem complicated at first glance, but most of them boil down to a few simple concepts. This article will be your comprehensive guide to the trigonometry you’ll need to know for the ACT. We’ll take you through the meaning of trigonometry, the formulas and understandings you’ll need to know, and how to tackle some of the most difficult ACT trig problems. What is Trigonometry and How Do I Use It? Trigonometry studies the relationships between the sides and angles of right triangles. The ratios between the measures of the sides of a right triangle and the measures of its angles are consistent, no matter how large or small the triangle. Some of the many different possible types of right triangles. If you know one side measure and one non-90 ° angle of the right triangle, you will be able to determine the rest of the triangle’s sides and angles. And if you have the lengths of two sides of a right triangle, you will be able to find the measure of all the interior angles. If we have two side lengths, we can use the Pythagorean theorem to find the third. So $12^2+14^2=c^2$ $c^2=340$ $c=√340$ or $c=2√85$ But what if we only have one side length and the measure of one of the (non-ninety degree) angles? Even though we only have the length of one side, we can still find the others using trigonometry because we have the measure of one of the acute angles. So here, we could say $sin 34 ° =12/\hypotenuse\$ So $\hypotenuse\ = 12/{sin 34 °}$ Don't worry if this doesn't make sense to you yet! We'll break down each step as we go further into the guide. (Note: to find the actual degree measure of an angle using two side lengths, you would have to perform an inverse function calculation (also called an "arc" function). But DON’T WORRY- the ACT will never actually make you do this! In terms of your ACT math prep, understand that the test will only ever ask you to calculate far enough to say, for example, "$Cosineâ€Å'x=4/5$." You will never have to find the actual angle measure of x on the ACT. The way we find these measures is by understanding the ratio of certain sides of the triangle to their corresponding angles. These are called trigonometric functions and there are three that you should memorize for the ACT: sine, cosine, and tangent. The easiest way to understand this is through the mnemonic device SOH, CAH, TOA, which we will discuss in a bit./p Trigonometry is widely used in navigation as well as in calculating heights and distances. (In case you were wondering if you ever needed trig in real life.) The Most Common ACT Trig Questions The trigonometry questions on the ACT will fall into just a few different categories. We have provided a few real ACT math examples to demonstrate each concept. #1: Finding the sine, cosine, or tangent (or, more rarely, cosecant, secant, or cotangent) of an angle from a given right triangle diagram. #2: Finding the sine, cosine, or tangent of a right triangle from a word problem. Alex props up a ladder against a wall. The ladder makes an angle of 23 ° from the ground. If the ladder is 10 feet long, what is the expression for finding the distance the foot of the ladder is from the wall? A. 10 $â€Å'tanâ€Å'23 °$ B. 10 $â€Å'sinâ€Å'23 °$ C. 10 $â€Å'cosâ€Å'23 °$ D. $cosâ€Å'{10/23}$ E. $sin{10/23}$ #3: Finding the sine, cosine, or tangent (or, more rarely, cosecant, secant, or cotangent) of an angle from a given sin, cos, or tan and a range in which the angle falls. If $tanâ€Å'ÃŽËœ=3/4 \and 180 °ÃŽËœ270 °$, what is $sinÃŽËœ$? A. $4/3$ B. $-4/3$ C. $-3/4$ D. $3/5$ E. $-3/5$ #4: Finding the period or amplitude of a graph. What is the amplitude of the graph? A. 1 B. 2 C. Ï€ D. 2Ï€ E. 0 #5: Law of sines or law of cosines question. For a question like this, they will give you the formulas for the law of sines or law of cosines, so you don’t have to worry about memorizing them. Having the formula won’t help you much, however, if it looks or sounds like gibberish to you. As you go through this guide, do the ACT math practice questions we've provided, and familiarize yourself with the trigonometry language used in these questions, they will become much easier to solve. We’ll go through how to solve each of these kinds of problems, but this gives you a sense of what the ACT trig problems will look like on the test. SOH, CAH, TOA Remember this famous mnemonic? It will save your life. Let's go through each one. SOH (Sine) Sine is a function where the sine (also called "sin") value of an angle theta can be found by using the ratio of the side of the triangle opposite the angle theta over the hypotenuse of the triangle. SOH: Sin $ÃŽËœ$ = Opposite side of triangle/Hypotenuse of triangle So in this triangle, $sinâ€Å'ÃŽËœ=b/c$ because the side opposite the angle $ÃŽËœ$ is b and the hypotenuse is c. CAH (Cosine) Cosine is a function where the cosine (also called "$cos$") value of an angle theta ($ÃŽËœ$) can be found by using the ratio of the side of the triangle adjacent to the angle $ÃŽËœ$ (that is not the hypotenuse) over the hypotenuse of the triangle. CAH: Cos $ÃŽËœ$ = Adjacent side of triangle/Hypotenuse of triangle Note: adjacent means the side of the triangle that is touching the angle/helps to create the angle $ÃŽËœ$. In this same triangle, $cosâ€Å'ÃŽËœ=a/c$ because the side adjacent the angle $ÃŽËœ$ is a and the hypotenuse is c. TOA (Tangent) Tangent is a function where the tangent (also called "tan") value of an angle theta can be found by using the ratio of the side of the triangle opposite the angle theta over the adjacent side of the triangle to theta (that is not the hypotenuse). TOA: Tan $ÃŽËœ$ = Opposite side of triangle/Adjacent side of triangle. In this same triangle, $tanâ€Å'ÃŽËœ=b/a$ because the side opposite the angle $ÃŽËœ$ is b and adjacent side is a. Now that you are familiar with your mnemonic devices, you can put together questions with multiple steps. For example, a slightly more difficult question may look something like this: You are given the lengths of two sides of the triangle but need the length of the third side to solve the problem. Don’t forget that this is a right triangle and you can use the Pythagorean theorem to find the length of the third side! So $2^2+x^2+5^2$ $x^2=21$ $x=√21$ Now that you have the measure of the third side, you can find $tanâ€Å'B$. $Tanâ€Å'B=\Opposite/\Adjacent$ $TanB=√21/2$ So the answer is F, $√21/2$ Which Sides are Opposite or Adjacent? The hypotenuse of a triangle always stays the same, but the sides opposite or adjacent switch depending on the angle of focus. For example, if you’re trying to find the $sin$ of angle $ÃŽ ³$, you would use the ratio of $b/c$; if you’re trying to find the sin of angle $ÃŽ ¾$, you would use the ratio of $a/c$. How Do I Use These Ratios? For the purposes of the ACT, you will either be given two side lengths, which means your final answer would look like: $Sin ÃŽËœ = \opposite/\hypotenuse$ Here, you find the length of the third side using the Pythagorean theorem. So $10^2+x^2=12^2$ $x^2=44$ $x=√44$ Now $sin$ = $\opposite/\hypotenuse$, so $sinâ€Å'M=√44/12$. So the answer is K. No need to find the degree measure (arcsine or inverse sine) of angle M on your calculator- this is as far as you need to go. You may also be given the value of the angle and the side length of the denominator of your ratio. When this happens, manipulate the equation as you would algebraic equation and multiply the opposite side by the denominator. $sin ÃŽËœ = \opposite/\hypotenuse$ $hypotenuse$*sinÃŽËœ =$ opposite Since you're being asked for the length of the boat to the dock and this side is opposite the 52 ° angle, you know you will either need sin or tan (cos uses adjacent and hypotenuse, not opposite). You are also given an adjacent length, 30 miles, so you will be using tan. (You can tell this side is adjacent because the side opposite the 90 ° angle is the hypotenuse, so 30 miles must be another leg of the triangle). $tanâ€Å'ÃŽËœ=\opposite/\adjacent$ So $tanâ€Å'52 °=x/30$ 30â€Å' $tanâ€Å'52 °=x$ So the answer is F, the length of the boat to the dock is 30 tan 52 °. And again with the word problem from earlier. Alex props up a ladder against a wall. The ladder makes an angle of 23 ° from the ground. If the ladder is 10 feet long, what is the expression for finding the distance the foot of the ladder is from the wall? A. 10 â€Å'$tanâ€Å'23 °$ B. 10â€Å' $sinâ€Å'23 °$ C. 10 $â€Å'cosâ€Å'23 °$ D. $cosâ€Å'10/23$ E. $sinâ€Å'10/23$ First, draw your picture to more easily visualize what is being asked. So we have the measure between the ladder and the ground of $23 °$. We are also working with the lengths of the adjacent side of the triangle and the hypotenuse. This means we will need cosine, as $cosâ€Å'ÃŽËœ=\opposite/\hypoteneuse$ So $cosâ€Å'23 °=\adjacent/10$ (Why 10? The ladder is 10 feet long) This becomes 10 $â€Å'cosâ€Å'23 °=\adjacent$ So the answer is C, 10 $â€Å'cosâ€Å'23 °$ Will I Have to Find the Measure of an Angle? The short answer is: no, you won't be asked to find exact measure of an angle degree using trigonometry. The longer answer is: no, you won't be asked to find the measure of an angle, but it's important to know it's done. To get the actual degree measure of theta (ÃŽËœ), you would have to perform an inverse (also called "arc") function. This would transform your equation from, for example: $Sinâ€Å'ÃŽËœ=x/y$ $ÃŽËœ=sin^{−1}(x/y)$ Although you will never be asked to find the $arctan$, $arcsin$, or $arccos$ of an angle to solve for the actual angle measure degree, it is important for you to understand how these equations are manipulated to get to the right ACT answer. Because we know that $tan^{−1}(a/b)$ is the arctan, we know that it means we can re-write it as $tanâ€Å'ÃŽËœ=a/b$ We also know that $tanâ€Å'ÃŽËœ=\opposite/\adjacent$ This means that, for the angle $ÃŽËœ$, a is the opposite and b is the adjacent. We also know that $cosâ€Å'ÃŽËœ=\adjacent/\hypoteneuse$ Because we already discovered that b is the adjacent, it means that the answer is D, $b/{√(a^2+b^2)}$ When are Sin, Cos, and Tan Positive or Negative? Depending on where the triangle is positioned in two dimensional space, the sin, cos, and tan values will be negative or positive. There are four quadrants in two dimensional space and they are split along the x and y axes. In quadrant I, both x and y are positive. In quadrant II, x is negative and y is positive In quadrant III, both x and y are negative And in quadrant IV, x is positive and y is negative Just like with x and y values, sin, cos, and tan are either positive or negative depending on the quadrant the triangle/angle is in. In quadrant I, all are positive In quadrant II, sin is positive and both cos and tan are negative In quadrant II, tan is positive and both sin and cos are negative In quadrant IV, cos is positive and both sin and tan are negative A good way to memorize this is by the mnemonic acronym ASTC- All Students Take Chemistry- to see which of the functions is positive, depending on the quadrant. So All are positive in quadrant I, Sin is positive in quadrant II, Tan is positive in quadrant III, and Cos is positive in quadrant IV If $tanâ€Å'ÃŽËœ=3/4$ and $180 °ÃŽËœ270 °$, what is $sinÃŽËœ$? A. $4/3$ B. $−4/3$ C. $-3/4$ D. $3/5$ E. $-3/5$ To solve this problem, first complete the side lengths of the triangle using the Pythagorean theorem (or using your knowledge of 3-4-5 triangles). $Tan ÃŽËœ = \opposite/\adjacent$, so we know that 3 is our opposite and 4 is our adjacent. This makes our hypotenuse unknown. $3^2+4^2=c^2$ $c^2=25$ $c=5$ So our hypotenuse is 5. We know that $sin ÃŽËœ = \opposite/\hypotenuse$. So $sinâ€Å'ÃŽËœ=3/5$. But wait! We're not done. Because they told us that $ÃŽËœ$ lies between $180 °$ and $270 °$, we know that the sin value of $ÃŽËœ$ is negative. According to ASTC, only the tan of angle $ÃŽËœ$ will be positive between $180 °$ and $270 °$. So our final answer is E,$-3/5$ Secondary Trig Functions On rare occasions on the ACT, you will be asked to give one of the secondary trig functions. These are cosecant, secant, and cotangent. These will come up on a maximum of one question per test. You might notice that they sound similar to the primary trig functions you learned above. In fact, these secondary functions are the reciprocal (reversal) of sin, cos, and tangent. To help you remember which is which, look to the third letter of the each word: Cosecant = reciprocal of sine Secant = reciprocal of cosine Cotangent = reciprocal of tangent Cosecant Cosecant is the reciprocal of sine. $Cosecant ÃŽËœ = \hypotenuse/\opposite$ Secant Secant is the reciprocal of cosine. $Secant ÃŽËœ = \hypotenuse/\adjacent$ Cotangent Cotangent is the reciprocal of tangent. $Cotangent ÃŽËœ = \adjacent/\opposite$ Useful Formulas with Sin, Cos, and Tan There are two formulas that will appear occasionally on the ACT. If you feel that you cannot possibly memorize any more trigonometry, do not worry about memorizing these- they will only ever come up on a maximum of one question per test. But if you want to get every last point possible, then these would be useful for you to memorize. $Sin^2{ÃŽËœ}+cos^2{ÃŽËœ}=1$ Whenever you see $sin^2{ÃŽËœ}+cos^2{ÃŽËœ}$, immediately replace it with 1. This will often make problems much simpler and therefore easier to solve. You can also manipulate the equation around just as you would any other algebraic equation. So $cos^2{ÃŽËœ}=1-sin^2{ÃŽËœ}$, and $sin^2{ÃŽËœ}=1-cos^2{ÃŽËœ}$ They told us that $x$ is between 0 and $Ï€/2$ radians, so we know that both sin and cos are positive (because it is in quadrant I). We also know that $Sin^2{ÃŽËœ}+cos^2{ÃŽËœ}=1$ which means that $sin^2{ÃŽËœ}=1-cos^2{ÃŽËœ}$. So if we square the first fraction (to get rid of the square root sign), we would have: $({√{1-cos^2{x}}}/{sinx})^2$ $(1-cos^2{x})/(sin^2{x})$ Because $1−cos^2{ÃŽËœ}$ is equal to $sin^2{ÃŽËœ}$, we can replace our $1−cos^2{x}$ with $sin^2{x}$ This gives us $(sin^2{x})/(sin^2{x})$, which equals 1. We can do the exact same process to the second fraction: $({√{1-sin^2{x}}}/{cosx})^2$ $(1-sin^2{x})/(cos^2{x})$ $(cos^2{x})/(cos^2{x})$, which also equals 1. So then we have 1 + 1 = 2 The final answer is H, 2. $$(sinâ€Å'ÃŽËœ)/(cosâ€Å'ÃŽËœ)=tanâ€Å'ÃŽËœ$$ This equation makes sense logically if you think about it with a diagram. Say you have a triangle that looks like this $Sin ÃŽËœ$ would be $5/13$. $Cos ÃŽËœ$ would be $12/13$. $Tan ÃŽËœ$ would be $5/12%. You could also say $tanâ€Å'ÃŽËœ={sinâ€Å'ÃŽËœ}/{cosâ€Å'ÃŽËœ}={5/14}/{12/13}=(5/13)(13/12)=65/156$ (you could also just cancel out both 13s to make it simpler) = $5/12$ Graphing Trig Functions The ACT will not ask you to graph a trig function, but you do need to recognize what each function looks like as a graph. Sine The sine graph crosses through the origin in a wave pattern. It always rises after $x = 0$, after it crosses the origin. It is an "odd" function because it is not symmetrical about the y-axis. Cosine The cosine graph is similarly "wavy" but it does not cross the origin. It descends after $x = 0$. It might help you to remember that cosine descends after x = 0 by thinking that "co is low" Cosine is an "even" function because it is symmetrical about the y-axis. This means that for all values of $x$, $f(x) = f(-x)$. For example, in the graph above, $y = 0.7$ both when $x = 1$ and when $x = -1$ Sometimes all the question will ask is for you to identify if a graph is even or odd or if a graph is sin or cos. This will be an easy point for you to get if you can remember the basic elements of trig graphs. Though you can figure this question out from the information given, it will take far less time if you can recognize that the graph is a cosine graph and is therefore even. And on the ACT, time is limited and valuable. Tangent The tangent graph looks very different than the sin and cos graphs- you just have to be able to recognize the tangent graph when you see it. Periods and Amplitudes The ACT will sometimes ask you to find the period or the amplitude of a sine or cosine graph. Period The period of a graph is the distance along the x-axis at which point the graph starts to repeat. Find the distance along the x-axis where the point returns to where it started after making a complete cycle. The period of the sine graph here is 2Ï€. It has to go both up and down before finally returning to $y = 0$. The period of the cosine graph here is also 2Ï€. It must go down and then back up to return to where it began at $y = 1$. Amplitude The amplitude of a graph is its height from the x-axis, the distance between its highest $y$-value and $x = 0$. So to use the same graph as above: Both the sine and the cosine have an amplitude of 1 (and, again, a period of 2Ï€). Radians Radians are another (more accurate) way to measure a distance around a circle, rather than using degrees. Instead of degrees, radians are expressed in terms of Ï€ (and fractions of Ï€). If you have a complete circle, that is 360 degrees. It is also 2Ï€ radians. Why 2Ï€ radians? Well, think of the formula for the circumference of a circle. C=2Ï€r. If your radius is 1, then your circumference is 2Ï€, which is the same as your radian measure. A circle that has a radius of 1 and is centered at the origin is called the "unit circle." It is convenient to think about radians by situating them on a unit circle. So if you have a half circle, it is 180 ° or Ï€ radians. And so on. 90 ° is $Ï€/2$ radians, 270 ° is $(3Ï€)/2$ radians. To convert degrees to radians, it is easiest to use the conversion between 180 ° and Ï€. Convert 45 ° to radians = $(45){Ï€/180}=Ï€/4$ â€Å'radians Convert $(3Ï€)/4$ radians to degrees = ${(3Ï€)/4}(180/Ï€)$=135 ° Steps to Approaching a Trig Question So let’s review how to break down a trig question #1: Identify if the problem requires trigonometry. You can tell that the problem will require trig when: The problem mentions sin, cos, or tan in the question or in the answer options The problem gives you a diagram or describes a right triangle and then asks you to find a value that cannot be found by using the pythagorean theorem alone. As we saw in this problem earlier- you may use the pythagorean theorem in a trigonometry problem, but you cannot solve a trig problem by only using the pythagorean theorem. The problem shows you a "wavy" graph along the x and y axis The problem asks for a graph’s period or amplitude #2: Remember SOH, CAH, TOA. The vast majority of ACT trig questions will just require you to plug in values into the SOH, CAH, TOA acronyms to find your sine, cosine, or tangent values #3: Know how to manipulate SOH, CAH, TOA if need be. Trig functions can be manipulated just like any algebraic expression. So if you have $cosâ€Å'40 °=x/18$, the answer becomes 18â€Å' $cosâ€Å'40 °=x$ And if you have $sin^{−1}(10/23)=ÃŽËœ$, you could also say $sinâ€Å'ÃŽËœ=10/23$ If you have $(sinâ€Å'ÃŽËœ)/(cosâ€Å'ÃŽËœ)=tanâ€Å'ÃŽËœ$, it can become $(sinâ€Å'ÃŽËœ)=(tanâ€Å'ÃŽËœ)(cosâ€Å'ÃŽËœ)$ And if you remember that $sin^2{â€Å'ÃŽËœ}+cos^2{â€Å'ÃŽËœ}=1, then you can say $1−cos^2{â€Å'ÃŽËœ}=sin^2{â€Å'ÃŽËœ}, etc. #4:. Remember what the graphs of sine, cosine, and tangent look like. And know that: Period = horizontal distance Amplitude = vertical distance #5: Celebrate, because you’ve completed your ACT trig questions! The Take-Aways Although trigonometry problems may look intimidating, most every ACT trig question can be solved if you know the basic trig building blocks. To make the most of your ACT math prep, remember these three trig concepts: SOH, CAH, TOA, how to manipulate your equations, and how to recognize your function graphs. If you can remember these, you will find yourself solving most every trig question the ACT can throw at you. What's Next? Want more ACT math strategies and guides? Review our article on all the math topics tested on the ACT to make sure you've got them nailed down tight. Do you know your ACT solid geometry? Be sure to brush up if you're looking for every last point. Want to get a perfect ACT Math score? Check out our article on How to a 36 on the ACT Math Section by a 36 ACT-Scorer. Feeling overwhelmed? Don't know where to begin? Look no further than our articles on what is considered a good, bad, or excellent ACT score. Don't know what days the ACT is offered? Check out our complete list of ACT test dates to find the right one(s) for your schedule. And if you find yourself running out of time on the math section, look no further than our article on how to stop running out of time on the ACT math. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points? 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